“ ‘Is’ refers to the positive (what is); ‘Ought’ refers to the normative (what ought to be).
Telos means purpose or aim.”

Modernity represents a rupture from the ideal. Causality, observation, and reasoning form the foundation of modern thought and science. There is a shift from the qualitative to the quantitative; thus, the focus is now on understanding what exists rather than what ought to be.
Emerging around the 15th century in Europe, this mindset broke away from tradition, leading to profound transformations in individual, social, and political spheres.
Modernity generally centers around reason and humanity, removing religion from the core of society and politics, thus paving the way for a secular structure.
While the idea of freedom was popularized, scientific methods replaced traditional teleological explanations, favoring objective, experimental, and mathematical approaches.

During the Middle Ages, Catholic Christianity and Islam had spread across the world, placing religion at the center of efforts to understand existence.
However, with the rise of science in the modern era, religion's role in explaining existence diminished and was replaced by science.
The Renaissance, beginning in 14th-century Italy, was the cornerstone of this transformation.
Enlightenment thinkers developed a new intellectual system based on observation, experimentation, quantitative measurement, and skepticism.
This methodology marked the beginning of the modernization of science.

Scientists disregarded the pressures from the church and societal order.
Pragmatism formed the foundation of their new mentality.
This development gained momentum through the rebirth and critical reevaluation of Ancient Greek science (especially Aristotelian thought).
Italian scientists approached Greek science with skepticism, adopting a more systematic and experimental method in knowledge production.
The revival of rational thinking from Ancient Greek science laid the fundamental groundwork for modern methodologies.
Modernity also gave rise to the idea that humans should have greater control over their own destiny, planting the roots of individual freedom.

The teleological method collapsed; scientists increasingly turned to observation and experimentation to uncover natural laws.
The church's authority over knowledge weakened in the face of scientific discoveries.
Everything became subject to doubt, prompting thinkers like Descartes to seek proof even of their own existence.
This situation indicates that the Renaissance profoundly influenced not only art but also philosophy.
Rather than relying solely on religious interpretations (such as those of the church), people moved toward producing knowledge based on observation.

This scientific transformation deeply impacted political thought as well.
If life has no universal purpose (telos), this undermines the basic principles of political order.
This understanding laid the foundation for Machiavelli’s thought.
Machiavelli defined politics not in terms of ideals or moral values but through the reality of power and sovereignty.
According to him, a ruler must act pragmatically to protect the interests of the people and the state, even if it means using fear as a tool.
In Machiavelli’s approach, the goal of politics is not the moral development of individuals but the preservation of the state’s power and stability.
Thus, politics moved away from concepts like virtue and happiness toward a power-centered understanding.

The Reformation movements further transformed Europe’s political and economic structures.
While the Renaissance weakened the church’s authority, the Reformation shattered it entirely.
Protestant ideology, although recognizing the legitimacy of secular rulers, called for limits on their powers, leading to the development of constitutional governance.
These changes laid the groundwork for ideas of separation of powers, individual freedoms, and liberal thought in Europe.

Moreover, the Protestant work ethic sanctified a work-focused life and interpreted worldly success as a sign of God's favor.
This mindset directly contributed to the rise of capitalism.
Profit became the central concept of the economy, and individuals began selling their products at higher prices to maximize profits.
This economic transformation, similar to the shift toward a power-centered politics, evolved into a capitalist and competitive system.
In the capitalist understanding, God's favor came to be measured through worldly wealth and success.

At the same time, the concept of law also underwent a significant transformation in the modern world.
The classical natural law tradition was questioned by skeptical philosophers and gradually lost its dominance.
Hugo Grotius emerged as a significant figure who systematized both natural law and positive law theories.
Natural law argued that individuals are born free and that nature imposes no obligations.
However, positive law proposed that individuals give up certain freedoms to live under an authority, thereby creating a more orderly and secure society.
This understanding formed the foundation of the social contract theory and shaped the legal infrastructure of the modern state.
Positive law justified the limitation of individual freedoms to maintain social order.

To summarize up to this point:
Modernism was born as a result of the Renaissance and Reformation movements and profoundly changed world history.
Science was accepted as the most reliable method for understanding existence;
Politics became centered on power;
The economy oriented itself toward profit maximization;
And law transitioned toward a positive legal system.
In all three fields, a pragmatic approach dominated.

Differences Between Modern Science and Classical Science:

Modern Science:

• Profoundly changed societies and ways of life during the Enlightenment.
• Directly influenced technological developments, the Industrial Revolution, and urbanization.
• Based on rationality.
• Reality is seen as mechanical and measurable.
• Aims to produce objective and universal results.
• The universe is explained through mathematical laws.
• Based on objectivity, empiricism, and inductivism.
• Produces laws and theories based on experiment and observation.
• Supports interdisciplinary studies.

Classical Science:

• Emphasizes an organic sense of unity.
• Focuses on beings and their inherent qualities.
• Governed by indeterminism; the motion of the universe is observed but not interfered with.
• Relied more on teleological (purpose-driven) and traditional explanations.

The scientific methods that began with Aristotle evolved through the Scientific Revolution and the establishment of a scientific community independent of religious authorities at universities.
Aristotelian science was teleological and traditional.
Modern science, beginning with Newton, is based on quantitative data, mathematical models, and natural laws.

The concept of modernization generally refers to the social and structural transformation experienced by industrialized Western societies.
Its foundations lie in the Renaissance and Reformation periods:

• It includes core structures like morality, individualism, and rationality.
• Social mobility increased.
• Concepts such as democracy, civil society, and human rights developed.

Although modernization was traditionally equated with Westernization, different societies adapted modernization to their unique circumstances.
By the 20th century, modernization had become a global phenomenon.

The concepts of modernity and modernization cannot be separated from the Renaissance, Reformation, and Industrial Revolution.

The structure of the modern state began with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648.
Modern society emerged in the 17th century as a result of major changes in science, art, and philosophy after the Renaissance.

With modernization, questions like “What is the ideal state?” gave way to “What is the state?”, “What is power and sovereignty?”.
Scientific and systematic approaches were developed to answer these questions.

Key Concepts of the Modern State:

• Rule of Law
• Nationalism
• Nation-States

With modernity, the structure of the state became even more centralized and powerful.
States began to claim absolute and indivisible sovereignty over specific territories, removing the notion of divine sovereignty from governance.
The state became secularized and adopted a bureaucratic structure, becoming more systematic.
The modern state concentrated most powers in the center and embraced the concept of a strong central government.

Criticism of modern science and thought began in the 20th century.
In physics, criticism of modern understanding started with Einstein, while in philosophy, Nietzsche criticized modernity.
Nietzsche viewed modernity as a process that alienated individuals and gave birth to capitalism; he even described modernity as a new kind of "fanaticism."
Nietzsche’s critiques paved the way for the emergence of postmodernism.

 Yasir Güneş