The Ghulam System in the Anatolian Seljuk State

Introduction

Ghulam is a word of Arabic origin that literally means boy, male child, slave, or servant (Sami, n.d.).

The ghulam system, which was also present in the Abbasid and Umayyad states, was later adopted by the Anatolian Seljuks. The only information we learn about the ghulam is from Ibn Bibi's Seljuk-nâme. From his work, we understand what the ghulam was and what its function was (Terzi, n.d., p. 178).

The legal structure in Muslim states permitted the formation of the ghulam system. Slavery is an institution whose boundaries are defined and declared in Islam. Slaves existed in Islamic states over time, and their trade was also carried out.

Ghulam is the name given to people who were captured as prisoners of war or acquired as slaves. These individuals were specially trained and later rose to important positions in the state.

"The aspect that recommends the system is that the ghulams were generally procured at a young age from a foreign cultural environment or a distant geography, and thus, when brought to the palace, the young slaves were trained and molded as desired" (Vryonis, 2015, p. 519).

Perhaps the most important characteristic of the ghulams was their great loyalty to their masters. The ethnic origins of these ghulams are said to be Indian, Daylami, Kashmiri, Qazvini, Kipchak, Turk, Chinese, Kurd, Khitay, Tajik, Georgian, Armenian, Greek (Rūm), Russian, and Latin (Frankish origin) (Kesik, 2017, p. 28). In fact, Turkmens were preferred due to their warrior characteristics. However, the largest number of ghulams came from Christian Greeks and Armenians. This was because the state was surrounded by Christians and Armenians (Vryonis, 2015, p. 523).

The ghulam system was divided into three categories: Mefaride, Halka-i hâss, and mülâzimân-ı yatak. The Mefaride were soldiers who protected the Sultan during battle. The Halka-i hâss ghulams consisted of infantry and cavalry and also served as the Sultan's close guards. The mülâzimân-ı yatak ghulams served by keeping watch day and night, both on campaign (sefer) and during peacetime (hazar) (Kesik, 2017, p. 26).

The absence of ethnic, religious, and linguistic unity ensured the successful implementation of this system until the 13th century. However, many states dependent on this system became helpless against the Mongols. Furthermore, the varying loyalties of the ghulams sometimes led to the demise of dynasties or the formation of new states such as the Tulunids, Ikhshidids, and Mamluks.

We learn a great deal about the ghulams from Ibn Bibi’s work titled el-Evâmirü’l-Alâiyye fi’l-Umûri’l-Alâiyye. We know that Ibn Bibi came to Anatolia between 1231-33 and that his family entered the service of the Seljuks (Özaydın, n.d., p. 379). After his father’s death in 1272, Ibn Bibi took over his father’s duties (Özaydın, n.d., p. 379).

We know that there was a ghulamhane (ghulam training school) where the ghulams received their education. Those who provided training there were known as “Baba” (Kesik, 2017, p. 29). There are also records indicating that not only the head of the state but also the emirs had their own ghulamhanes (Vryonis, 2015, p. 530).

In the Seljuk state, ghulams rose to important positions over time. They sometimes owned more wealth than the head of the state. While 80 sheep were distributed daily from the Chashnigir kitchen, only 30 sheep were sometimes distributed from the Sultan's kitchen (Vryonis, 2015, p. 527). This is an example of how much the ghulams had developed. However, since two administrations cannot exist in one state, the end of the ghulams was sometimes tragic.

The best example showing the role of the ghulams is the case of the failed rebellion attempt by the emirs during the reign of Alaeddin Keykubad. The wealth of the great emirs had increased so much that the Chashnigir Seyfeddin Acbe, Emir-i Ahur Zeyneddin Başara, Emir-i Meclis Mübarüziddin Behramşah, and Bahaeddin Kutluca had gained excessive power, overshadowing the Sultan. As the Chashnigir and his men had taken over the state, the Sultan decided to eliminate them. However, the others also planned to catch the Sultan at Seyfeddin’s house while he was drunk and remove him from power. When one of their ghulams informed the Sultan of this situation, the Sultan disarmed them and eliminated them in his room (Vryonis, 2015, p. 527).

There were many important ghulams in the Seljuk state. One of them was Celaleddin Karatay. It is generally agreed that Karatay was a pious and charitable statesman who protected the state in the absence of the Sultan (Taneri, n.d., p. 251) and strived to maintain order and stability in the country. He was a statesman respected by Mevlana (Kesik, 2017, p. 32). Furthermore, records indicate that Celaleddin Karatay was an ardent Sufi; he did not eat meat, did not attend weddings, and stayed away from worldly pleasures (Vryonis, 2015, p. 534).

Another important ghulam was Mikail, who served as naibü’l-hadra during the reign of Sultan Rükneddin. He carried out the reform of the financial system of the Anatolian Seljuk state (Vryonis, 2015, pp. 532-533).

"Şemseddin Has oğuz was a poet of notable quality who penned a remarkable poem on Wine and War. Eminüddin Mikail’s fame in the world of scholars in the thirteenth century was mentioned" (Vryonis, 2015, p. 534). Besides this, we know that many scholars were trained among the ghulams. Another feature of the ghulams is their achievements in the field of architecture. These individuals commissioned the construction of countless mosques, madrasahs, hospitals, fountains, fortresses, etc.

We do not have detailed information about how the ghulams who rose to important positions in the state hierarchy were trained. We do not know much about their curriculum. One of the important sources that gives us information about the education of the ghulams is Nizâmü’l-Mülk’s Siyasetname (The Book of Government). He gives us the following information:

“Now, this order (tertib) was in effect during the time of the Samanids. Gradually, the ghulam’s rank would increase in proportion to his service, skill, and competence. They would buy a ghulam; he would serve on foot (rikâb) for one year, wearing a Zendenecî kaftan and light boots. This ghulam was not allowed to ride a horse, secretly or openly, during this year. If it was learned that he rode one, he would be severely punished. After the ghulam served for one year in boots, the visâk-başı would tell the hâcib, and the hâcib would inform the sultan. Then, they would give him a small Turkish horse with a raw leather-covered saddle and a plain leather halter; after he served for one year with a horse and a whip, in the second year, they would give him a sword (karaçur) to wear on his belt; in the third year, they would give him a bow case (kırbân) and a quiver (kîş) to wear when mounting his horse; in the fourth year, he would receive a better saddle, a bridle with a star (kevkeb), a kaftan, and a club with a ring hanging from it; in the fifth year, he would become a cupbearer (saki) and a water-carrier (ab-dâr) with a cup hanging from his belt; in the sixth year, he would act as a wardrobe keeper (câme-darlık); in the seventh year, they would give him a small tent with one peak and 16 pegs; they would make 3 newly bought young ghulams his detachment (hayl); he would also be given the title visâk-başı. He would be made to wear a black cap with silver thread and a young man's kaftan; his position, magnificence, mounted retinue (hayl), and rank would be increased until he finally became a haylbaşı. Then, their competence, skills, and bravery would become known to everyone; they would be capable of great deeds; they were people (merdum) who held on and loved the sovereign (hudavendigar). At that time, they would not be given the rank of emirate or governorship (vilayet) and would not be appointed to any task until they reached the age of 30, 35, or 40” (Nizâmü’l-Mülk, 2013, p. 74).

This work is among the most important sources providing information about the ghulams. It is seen that they followed a strict hierarchy. They were expected to advance through certain stages in strict obedience to the rules. Obedience to the command and the superior was paramount here. It is also interesting that the Sultan himself had authority over matters concerning the ghulams. This indicates the value the Sultan placed on the ghulams. Another indicator must be their loyalty to the Sultan. It is mentioned that the relocation of ghulams in battles was possible.

The first record concerning the “ghulamhane” is encountered when Gıyâsü’d-dîn Keyhüsrev I, who had to leave the country after losing the struggle for the sultanate with his brother Rüknü’d-dîn Süleyman Şâh II, traveled to Diyarbakır, which was under Ayyubid rule at the time. Melik Salih, the ruler of Diyarbakır whom Ibn Bibi mentions as the Sultan's brother-in-law, upon hearing of the Sultan's arrival, sent his sons along with servants and retinue to meet the Sultan and, at the same time, ordered the treasury to be filled with all kinds of clothes and fabrics, valuable household items made of gold and silver, the “ghulamhane” to be filled with moon-faced ghulams, and the harem and the bedroom (şebistân) to be filled with beautiful and charming slave girls resembling houris, astonishing those who saw them (Göksu, n.d., p. 68).

Here we see that the ghulamhane existed in the Ayyubid state. Ghulamhanes were located not only in central regions but also in various other regions. This was the case not only in the Ayyubid state but also in the Seljuks. Ghulamhanes were present in other regions as well, not just in the center (Göksu, n.d., p. 68). They functioned much like madrasahs and were widespread.

"The last record of the “ghulamhane” by Ibn Bibi is found during the trap set by Pervâne Fahreddin Ebu Bekir and Emîr-i dâd Nusretin to kill Şemsü’d-dîn Hasoğuz and Esededdin Ruzbe during the period of Mongol suzerainty. According to the author’s record, for the assassination planned to take place in Sâhib Şemsü’d-dîn Isfahânî’s palace, the “serverân-i rünûd” located around Akşehir and Ilgın were summoned and secretly placed at night into cells (hücrât) and “ghulamhanes” surrounding Sâhib Şemsü’d-dîn’s palace, which ordinary and non-elite people were not allowed to enter" (Göksu, n.d., p. 71).

Ultimately, the plan was successfully executed. This is very important in demonstrating the power of the ghulams. As seen, the ghulams served many purposes in the Seljuk state, not just a single one.

Conclusion

In the Seljuk state, the ghulam system should be understood as the vital organs that ensured the survival of the state. We see that the ghulam system was more important than the Janissary system in the Seljuk state. As far as I know, there was no Janissary who founded a state like the Ghaznavid Alp Tegin. Although the Janissary system came after and was a continuation and developed version of the ghulam system, the fact that it could not penetrate the areas that the ghulam system did is a subject that requires research. It is undeniable that every era has its own dynamics. Perhaps the Ottomans understood the ghulam system of the Seljuks very well and took precautions accordingly. In any case, this is a topic that needs to be examined.

The ghulams, who penetrated every level of the state, had a say in many areas of the administration of the Seljuk state. We learn about these from the works of Ibn Bibi and Nizâmü’l-Mülk. This field is a subject that requires further study and the publication of an abstract book.

References

Göksu, E. (n.d.). Türkiye Selçuklu Devletinde Gulâm Eğitimi Ve Gulâmhaneler. http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/GENEL/egoksu_gulam_gulamhane.pdf

Kesik, M. (2017). At üstünde Selçuklular Türkiye Selçukluları’nda Ordu Ve Savaş [Seljuks on Horseback Army and War in Anatolian Seljuks]. Timaş.

Nizâmü’l-Mülk. (2013). Siyâset-nâme [The Book of Government] (M. A. Köymen, Ed.). TTK.

Özaydın, A. (n.d.). İbn Bîbî. In Diyanet Islamic Encyclopedia (Vol. 19, pp. 379–382).

Sami, Ş. (n.d.). Kâmûs-ı Türkî.

Taneri, A. (n.d.). Celaleddin Karatay. In Diyanet Islamic Encyclopedia (Vol. 9, pp. 251–252).

Terzi, M. Z. (n.d.). Gulâm. In Diyanet Islamic Encyclopedia (Vol. 14, pp. 178–180).

Vryonis, S., Jr. (2015). Selçuklu Gulamı Ve Osmanlı Devşirmesi [Seljuk Ghulam and Ottoman Devshirme]. In O. Özel & M. Öz (Eds.), Söğütten İstanbul’a (pp. 519–534). İmge.

Ozan Dur is Türkiye based middle east researcher