POLITICAL SYSTEM OF THE UK

Comparative politics often begins with an examination of the United Kingdom. It is the first pioneer of modern democracy. The UK political system is a model for many other liberal democracies. The United Kingdom is one of the oldest democracies in the world. Unlike many other democracies, British democracy does not have a specific date or event. It depends on popular culture.

The longevity and stability of democracy rests largely on the traditional culture of legitimacy and compromise. The United Kingdom does not need a system or a leader to be a good democracy because it has a deep-rooted culture that is embraced by its people. Additionally, the Industrial Revolution also took place in the United Kingdom and Liberal Political Ideology emerged from there.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATE

Since 1801, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland has been the formal name of the United Kingdom. Great Britain consists of three nations: England, Wales and Scotland. These three nations and Northern Ireland form the United Kingdom. All British citizens are not depend on a written constitution but on the Crown, the symbol of the UK state. The Crown represents the regime, sovereignty and security of the British state. The development of the modern British state was gradual, piecemeal and peaceful.

EARLY DEVELOPMENT

The United Kingdom experienced 1,500 years of invasions. Celts, Romans, Angles, Saxons, Danes and Normans invaded the British Isles. They left important legacies. For example, the Germanic Angles and Saxons gave up their languages. Another important legacy was the emergence of the common law system.

The last invasion was made by the Normans in 1066. The most important legacy from this invasion was feudalism. This created responsibilities between the Lord and the Villagers. As a result of these obligations, we can see the emergence of the limits of royalty and democracy. The most important first document on this subject is the Magna Carta which limits the powers of the King and protects the rights of feudalism. This is a sign of the rule of law. The United Kingdom did not have Royal Absolutism like other states. For this reason, the people's control over the state and government was opened.

England has been demonstrating the power and legitimacy of parliament from early on. For this reason, religion did not trouble the United Kingdom the way it did in many other countries.

EMERGENCE OF THE MODERN BRITISH STATE

There were three important developments that weakened the power of British monarchs and enabled the emergence of democracy:

James of Scotland first came to the crown in 1603 and was an absolutist. For this reason, he resisted the restrictions of parliament, and civil war began in the period of his son Charles. As a result of the battle, Parliamentary supporters won and Charles was executed.

Secondly, when James II came to the crown in 1685, Parliament and the monarchy came face to face again. James was a Catholic and Parliament did not want to return to Catholicism and absolute rule. Therefore James 2 was booted and Parliament institutionalized its political supremacy. This was an important point in the formation of the constitutional monarchy.

Thirdly, in 1714 George I became the king but he could not speak English and depended on his cabinet. George remained particularly dependent on the prime minister. By the late 18th century, prime ministers and cabinet members were no longer chosen by monarchs but instead were appointed by parliament.

EMPIRE AND INDUSTRIALIZATION

England began to open up to the world in the 16th century and became the greatest economic, military and cultural power in the 19th century. By the 1870s it owned almost a quarter of the world economy and controlled many countries.

However, in the early 20th century the British Empire began to shrink. In particular, two world wars, the loss of colonies, struggles for independence and economic difficulties brought the end of the British Empire. Today, the Commonwealth includes the United Kingdom and 54 of its former colonies. They have economic and cultural relations.

The United Kingdom was the first industrial nation and developed an industrial empire. After the 18th century, industrialization changed British society and politics. The United Kingdom had great wealth which especially increased the middle class. With the strengthening of the middle class, the transition to democracy became easier. Yet, early industrialization also made it difficult to reform the country's economy, and Britain was left behind in the process.

GRADUAL DEMOCRATIZATION

In the early days, only the rich could vote in Britain. Two factors weakened the monarchy and elevated democracy:

The first factor was the emergence of political parties. Two separate parties, Conservative and Liberal, emerged. And the people gave great support to the parties.

The second factor was the expansion of voting rights. In the following periods, women were given the right to vote and the voting age was lowered.

With the emergence of new voters, needs and demands increased. The workers' party was established to meet these demands. The party supported policies that would enable the establishment of social services. After the second world war, the Labor Party came to power and implemented the welfare state.

POSTWAR POLITICS, NATIONAL IDENTITY, AND STATE SOVEREIGNTY

In the 1970s, the economic crisis began in the country and they said that the reason for this was Tory policies. By contrast, liberals came to power in 1979 and limited state intervention. The government lowered taxes and reduced social services.

In 1997 the workers' party returned to power. The name of the party was “New Labour”. New Labor stayed away from the ultra conservative policies of old Labor and the laissez-faire policies of the Liberal party. Laissez-faire is a liberal system which limits the state’s role in the economy “allowed to do in the economy”. He adopted more balanced and reformist policies. In 2010, no party gained a majority and a coalition was formed. The call of the coalition formed between Conservatives and Centre-Left Liberals was justice, freedom and responsibility.

In 2015, conservatives came to power. In 2014, Scotland held a referendum to leave Britain. However, the government did not want this independence. As a result of the referendum, Scotland remained loyal to Britain. Two years later, the United Kingdom began the process of leaving the European Union. The referendum resulted in greater sovereignty for the United Kingdom. As a result, Prime Minister Cameron resigned and the government wanted to hold an early "instant" election to negotiate Brexit in 2017, but the early election failed.

POLITICAL REGIME

The United Kingdom has a majoritarian democracy. The majority in parliament has unchecked power. Britain has no formal constitutional limitations on its central government, with few judicial limits.

There is no single document that defines the rules of politics. The constitution may include written documents and unwritten rules. For example, the Magna Carta, the Bill of Rights, and the Act of Union.

What makes the UK constitution special and different is that it also includes customs and traditions. There is no constitutional court in the United Kingdom because a law passed by parliament is already considered constitutional. Due to the lack of a written constitution, the European Convention on Human Rights was included in the law in 1998. The unwritten constitution is defended for its flexibility.

The crown is the symbol of Britain, represented by the monarchy. The monarch is the head of the state and a ceremonial figure. The British monarchy accepts the orders of the elected. That's why its role still continues. For example, the monarchy is the commander of the armed forces, but the prime minister has the power to declare war. The majority of the people want to preserve the monarchy.

THE BRANCHES OF GOVERNMENT

Prime Minister: The United Kingdom is governed by a parliamentary system and the prime minister is the real power. The Prime Minister is the head of the government. Party discipline is very strong in the UK and there are few restrictions on central government. For this reason, prime ministers have more power. However, in coalition governments, parties use less power.

Prime Ministers are elected every 5 years. With the Fixed Term Parliaments Act, it became difficult for the government to call early elections, after 2011.

The vote of no confidence is still available. If the government cannot get the vote of confidence from the parliament, the entire cabinet will resign. However, votes of no confidence are used very rarely. During the last century, only two governments were overthrown by legislative votes of no confidence.

Although the monarchy is the head of state and nation, the prime minister is expected to provide national leadership. British prime ministers are also diplomats and world leaders. Candidates for this title must rise through the ranks of the party before reaching the highest office.

Cabinet: There are approximately 20 members in the British cabinet. They usually come from the lower house, but can sometimes be members of the House of Lords. Although the prime minister and cabinet emerge from Parliament, they are separated from the legislature as a separate executive branch and have little control over their powers. The cabinet is responsible to the parliament.

The cabinet acts collectively. Usually ministers who oppose a policy resign.

The Legislature: Parliament, the British legislature, is the most powerful legislature in the world because it has no constitutional restrictions. The legislature has two branches; House of Commons and House of Lords:

House of Commons: They represent the regions and consists of 650 members. Members are elected every 5 years at most, but early elections may be held due to a vote of no confidence. A politically neutral Speaker of the Assembly presidents. They are less powerful than the individual US legislatures. Because in the United Kingdom, the largest party elects the prime minister as the head of government; As a result, it is the political parties that matter, not the individual members. Despite these limitations, MPs perform important duties.

House of Lords: Found only in Britain. Represents the upper class and is the upper chamber. Today, as democratization increases, the power of the House of Lords has diminished. It consists of more than 800 members and is appointed by the King or Queen. It does not have a real veto over legislation, however it can persuade the government to change laws. Today, it is a matter of debate whether the House of Lords should have more power or not.

The Judiciary: In Britain, the judicial system plays a minor role in parliament. A law made by the legislature was, by definition, constitutional. All supreme court justices are also legislative lords of the House of Lords. Recently the courts have become more political. The reason for this is to approve the actions of the government and the adoption of international laws.

About a year ago, Former British Prime Minister Liz Truss made a statement and said; “In Britain, the power that used to be in the hands of politicians has passed to bureaucrats and lawyers in the last 30 years. We see that democratically elected governments cannot implement their own policies. The USA and the UK are ruled by the deep state.”

THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM

The United Kingdom has a Westminster electoral system. This system is majoritarian. In this model, the most powerful body of the government is the cabinet. What distinguishes parties from each other in this system is socio-economic policies. For example, the Labor Party represents the centre-left and the Conservative Party represents the centre-right.

In this system, the one who gets the majority or the most votes wins the election. Additionally, this system is centralized. Local governments mostly depend on the central government. In the Westminster model parliament has sovereignty. There is no element to supervise the parliament and there are no legal restrictions.

The United Kingdom uses the single-member district (SMD) system based on plurality voting or what is often known as “first past the post”. Electoral districts are determined by population and are reviewed by a government commission every five to seven years.

Single-Member: An electroral district with one seat voters are usually do not vote for small parties. Because they don't want to waste their votes. They give it to those who have the highest chance of winning

As seen in the election results, the system protects the two main parties. Conservative Party and Labor Party. The British electoral system has generally produced clear majorities in the House of Commons, even if there is no clear majority in the electorate. The party with the majority had great power in this system.

Scotland and Wales have adopted a mixed electoral system while Northern Ireland uses a system known as single-preference voting.

POLITICAL CONFLICT AND COMPETITION

THE PARTY SYSTEM

Political parties are extremely important in the UK's majoritarian parliamentary system. The majority party controls the government and can generally implement the policy goals outlined in the party manifesto. From the end of the Second World War until 1970, the United Kingdom had a two-party system. After 1974, a multi-party system emerged, with the emergence of a stronger centrist Liberal Democratic Party and, more recently, the UK Independence Party, as well as increased support for nationalist parties in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. But because the Conservatives and Labor continue to prevail, the current system is often referred to as dominant two-party system with significant regional parties. Before we get into party politics today, let's take a closer look at each of the major parties in the UK.

THE CONSERVATIVE PARTY

Because conservatives are generally pragmatic conservatives and have always embraced democratic rule, the party has garnered widespread respect and even electoral support among a wide range of voters. However, as the Labor Party developed serious internal ideological divisions starting in the 1970s, the Conservatives also became divided among themselves between those advocating radical or neoliberal free market reforms. Thatcher's rise to power in the late 1970s marked the dominance of the neoliberal faction. The party became further divided over policy regarding the European Union, with so-called Eurosceptics pitted against those who supported European integration. The Conservative Party struggled in opposition following defeat in the 1997 election. A series of ineffective leaders tried but failed to return the Conservative Party to power. Following the 2005 elections, the Conservative Party elected the young and charismatic David Cameron as party leader. Under Cameron's energetic leadership, they took steps very similar to Labor under Blair. At the 2010 election, the Conservatives gained a solid majority of seats in the House of Commons but failed to gain the majority of seats required to govern alone. The Conservatives entered into a coalition government and formed an alliance with the Liberal Democrats. The party won an absolute majority of seats in the 2015 election and formed a one-party government with Cameron continuing as prime minister. Despite these gains, internal conflicts and divisions within the party continued where they left off and both the differences of opinion from the 1970s and the measures taken against the 2008-2009 financial crisis divided the members into two. The issue of the European Union has become even more divisive. Faced with growing frustration and fears among his own party and the wider British public about rising immigration and threats to British sovereignty, Cameron renegotiated some of the terms of Britain's membership of the EU and unsuccessfully presented the new arrangement to the British public in 2016 . Then, despite the open calls for Brexit from some party leaders and MPs, Cameron could not stand the pressure and resigned. Cameron's successor Theresa May, like Cameron, sought to restore party unity and secure a strong mandate to negotiate a favourable Brexit deal by calling a snap election in 2017. But like Cameron's Brexit referendum gamble, his efforts backfired.

THE LIBERAL DEMOCRATS

The Liberal Democratic Party, a third-party haven for voters who adopt a variety of values and political positions, was formed in 1988 by the merger of Liberal Party and Labor defectors. The party's ideology is a blend of classical liberalism's emphasis on both individual freedom and a weak state and social democracy's emphasis on collective equality. The Liberal Democrats won the party's highest ever share of the popular vote (23 per cent) at the 2010 election and found themselves in the position of dealmakers in Britain's hung parliament of 2010 for the first time. It realized that they were actually being used and faced a harsh reaction from its voters before the party could enjoy the fruits of this success. The party received less than 8 percent of the vote in 2015 and only 8 seats in the House of Commons.

OTHER PARTIES

The fact that even the Liberal Democrats, as the 3rd largest party, have a low percentage does not mean that other smaller parties do not play any role in British politics. Apart from the Green Party, historically regionally based parties such as the Scottish National Party (SNP), Welsh Plaid Cymru and several Northern Ireland parties have been most successful in garnering enough votes to win seats in the legislature in some areas.

ELECTIONS

British voters elect all 650 members of the House of Commons during the general election. These elections are held every 5 years under a law passed in 2011 and started to be implemented since 2015. In British general elections, around 60 to 70 percent of voters usually vote. It is small by European standards but much higher than in the USA. British campaigns are short-lived usually lasting less than a month. Voters have a relatively simple choice: Which party should come to power? Candidates cannot even reside in the district where they are running. A candidate must first serve local interests, not party interests.

SOCIETY

CIVIL SOCIETY

Like almost all democracies, the United Kingdom is home to a variety of groups expressing special interests, but interest group lobbying of MPs is much less common than lobbying in the US Congress because British parties are more disciplined. The Trades Union Congress (TUC), the confederation of the UK's largest unions, is Britain's most important interest group in terms of numbers. For much of the post-war period the TUC dominated the Labor Party and was therefore extremely influential during periods of Labor government. However, the TUC's membership has fallen significantly in recent years due to the decline of Britain's blue-collar workforce.

CLASS IDENTITY

Class identity is perhaps the most clear of all social divisions in Britain and the most noticeable to outside observers. Historically, political parties and many key policy debates have reflected class differences, not differences of ethnicity, region or religion. Historically, political parties and many key policy debates have reflected class differences, not differences of ethnicity, region or religion. Regional disparities in income maintain this social divide, with the more prosperous and vibrant white-collar south of England and the struggling blue-collar North.

ETHNIC AND NATIONAL IDENTITY

Despite the UK's relative ethnic homogeneity, religious, linguistic and cultural divisions exist and in some cases, are becoming more pronounced. The United Kingdom is more secular and tolerant of ethnicities than the rest of Europe. But even today the Scots are mostly Catholic or Presbyterian and the English mostly identify with the Church of England. However, religion remains a significant source of conflict in Northern Ireland, where about half of the citizens are Protestant and half are Irish Catholic. Since the 1960s, the immigration of former colonial subjects to the United Kingdom in increasing numbers (especially from Africa, the West Indies, India and Pakistan) has introduced a degree of racial diversity into British society. Racial tensions between the overwhelming majority of whites and non-European minorities have fueled conflict and anti-immigrant sentiment. Parliament attempted to limit the non-white population by imposing immigration quotas. Despite this, the country continues to face increasing immigration rates. This has already changed social dynamics and increased xenophobia, strengthening parties such as UKIP and supporting the successful Brexit vote. Additionally, the integration of the Muslim population is a problem. The four countries of the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) show significant cultural and political differences. Most UK citizens do not primarily identify as British but as belonging to one of these four nationalities.

POLITICAL ECONOMY

The United Kingdom is known for its contribution to the liberal economic model. But liberalism in the UK has undergone a number of changes in recent decades, from a greater emphasis on social democratic values after the Second World War to neoliberalism. As of 2016, the country's GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity ranks 38th in the world, behind much poorer one-time colonies such as Ireland and Australia. (As of 2021, it has risen to 23rd place). Despite this, the UK economy remains in the top 10 strongest economies in the world. While industries such as steel, oil, and gas still play a significant role, almst three-quarters of post-industrial Britain's wealth is in the service sector. Privatization has significantly reduced the state's role in the economy, and the welfare state has undergone significant changes, shifting from a system that directly benefits the unemployed to one that supports "welfare to work" programs that emphasize the importance of education for finding work. However, neoliberal economic policies have increased financial inequality. Britain's budget deficit became severe in the wake of the 2008 global financial crisis and was further intensified by the inflated housing bubble and the economy being heavily reliant on financial services. In response, the Labour government implemented a series of specific measures; partially nationalising the bank, raising income taxes on the rich, and increasing both public borrowing and public spending to alert the economy.The Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government moved towards a more liberal approach after taking office in 2010, cutting public spending and pursuing deregulation in an attempt to reduce the government's rising budget deficit. The success or failure of these measures remains a matter of great debate.

SOME ISSUES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

SCOTLAND'S BID FOR INDEPENDENCE

Scotland was an independent state until the 1707 Act of Union, passed by the Scottish legislature despite widespread public protest, united it with England to form Great Britain. Scotland retained its own legal system, its own church, and many of its own traditions. The Scottish National Party (SNP), founded in the 1930s, advocated for Scottish independence but was relatively unsuccessful until recently. The Labor Party which came to power through devolution in 1997, responded to calls by giving Scotland its own legislature and broad powers over regional matters. He planned a referendum on "home rule" in 2014. In the referendum, Scottish voters rejected the proposal by a clear margin of 56 per cent to 44 per cent. The majority of Scottish voters doubted that Scotland could function viably as an independent state. However, while the majority of British voters chose to leave the EU, nearly two-thirds of Scots who went to the polls voted to remain in the EU.

BREXIT

Brexit, which means the United Kingdom's departure from the European Union, is a shortened combination of the English words Br (Britain) and Exit. The United Kingdom decided to 'divorce' the European Union, of which it became a member in 1973, in a referendum held in 2016. Following the referendum, in which 52 percent of the British people voted in favor of separation, Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty was implemented.

SECURITY

Strengthening defenses against Russia, China, Iran, and North Korea: Defense spending is planned to increase to 5%, particularly following warnings from the US regarding NATO members. Russia's advances in Ukraine, in particular, pose a threat to all other European countries, and the escalating global conflict crises are also increasing the UK's defense budget. During Macron's visit emphasis was placed on defence, nuclear deterrence and shared responsibility in a post-NATO Europe.

FINANCE

There is uncertainty surrounding public and private investments due to employer insurance liability, economic volatility, the cost of inflation-linked bonds, and international tariffs. Contradictions in fiscal policy are making investors nervous.

MIGRANTS

The UK is grappling with high immigration rates, border crossings, people smuggling, refugee policies and integration issues. Refugees are pouring in from the English Channel in small boats. In the last year and a half, 40,000 migrants have arrived on the island, particularly from France. And the UK is struggling for find a political solution to migrants. Its repatriation policies are facing reactions because they are seen as in violation of human rights.

 Yasir Güneş